2010 Winter/Spring – Rowing Training Camp – Wrightstown, PA

New!  Coming Soon!

Coach Kaehler is hosting an on-land training camp for experienced rowers of all levels who want to make an easy transition back onto the water in the spring!  This informative, active training camp will improve rowing strength and skills, so you are ready for the Spring rowing season

Camp details:  The camp will be held on Wednesday afternoons from 3:15pm – 4:45 pm and Sunday mornings from 6:30am -8:30 am, beginning on Wednesday, February 10th through Wednesday April 7th, 2010.  All camps will be located at the Transcend Sports Training facility in Wrightstown, Pennsylvania.

Body balance is the key to helping athletes reach their maximum potential with rowing and strength training related to rowing. Each participate will receive Coach Kaehler’s specialized structural evaluation to identify any musculoskeletal imbalances that may be present.  In addition, participants will receive their own personalized corrective exercise program to help restore and strengthen body balance.

Participants will learn proper body mechanics for both rowing and strength training, allowing for the optimal athletic progression. Sessions include work on the Concept 2 rowing ergometer, as well as strength training in the fully equipped, modern, gym. In addition to weekly sessions, athletes will receive a program for additional training to be completed on their own during the week.

Convenient Location! 30 minutes from Princeton and 35 minutes from Philadelphia

Individualized Instruction in a small camp format!

Please note: Athletes must be 16 or older.  Camp participation is limited to allow for an optimal coaching environment for each athlete, so register soon!
For more information, contact Coach Kaehler at coachkaehler@gmail.com or 267.968.2900

All About Energy Balance

What is energy balance?

“Energy balance” is the relationship between “energy in” (food calories taken into the body through food and drink) and “energy out” (calories being used in the body for our daily energy requirements).

This relationship, which is defined by the laws of thermodynamics, dictates whether weight is lost, gained, or remains the same.

According to these laws, energy is never really created and it’s never really destroyed. Rather, energy is transferred between entities.

We convert potential energy that’s stored within our food (measured in Calories or kcals) into three major “destinations”: work, heat and storage.

As the image below shows, the average number of available calories per person in the US is increasing.  In general, there is more “energy in”.

When it comes to “energy out,” the body’s energy needs include the amount of energy required for maintenance at rest, physical activity and movement, and for food digestion, absorption, and transport.

We can estimate our energy needs by measuring the amount of oxygen we consume. We eat, we digest, we absorb, we circulate, we store, we transfer energy, we burn the energy, and then we repeat.

Why energy balance is so important

There’s a lot more to energy balance than a change in body weight.

Energy balance also has to do with what’s going on in your cells. When you’re in a positive energy balance (more in than out) and when you’re in a negative energy balance (more out than in), everything from your metabolism, to your hormonal balance, to your mood is impacted.

Negative energy balance

A severe negative energy balance can lead to a decline in metabolism, decreases in bone mass, reductions in thyroid hormones, reductions in testosterone levels, an inability to concentrate, and a reduction in physical performance.

Yet a negative energy balance does lead to weight loss. The body detects an energy “deficit” and fat reserves are called upon to make up the difference.

The body doesn’t know the difference between a strict diet monitored by a physician at a Beverly Hills spa and simply running out of food in a poor African village. The body just knows it isn’t getting enough energy, so it will begin to slow down (or shut down) all “non-survival” functions.

Ask somebody who has been fasting for two weeks if they have a high sex drive. Nope.

Positive energy balance

Overfeeding (and/or under exercising) has its own ramifications not only in terms of weight gain but in terms of health and cellular fitness.

With too much overfeeding, plaques can build up in arteries, the blood pressure and cholesterol in our body can increase, we can become insulin resistant and suffer from diabetes, we can increase our risk for certain cancers, and so on.

The relationship between the amount of Calories we eat in the diet and the amount of energy we use in the body determines our body weight and overall health.

The body is highly adaptable to a variety of energy intakes/outputs. It must be adaptable in order to survive. Therefore, mechanisms are in place to ensure stable energy transfer regardless of whether energy imbalances exist.

What you should know about energy balance

The standard “textbook” view of energy balance doesn’t offer consistent explanations for body composition changes.

This is because calorie restriction or overconsumption without a “metabolic intervention” (such as exercise or drugs) is likely to produce equal losses in lean mass and fat mass with restriction or equal gains in lean mass and fat mass with overfeeding.

People will likely end up as smaller or larger versions of the same shape. They’ll lose muscle along with fat.

Both sides of the energy balance equation are complex and the interrelationships determine body composition and health outcomes.

Gone are the days of eating a 1500 calorie meal from McDonald’s and then “exercising” it off. Overall lifestyle habits help to properly control energy balance, and when properly controlled, excessive swings in either direction (positive or negative) are prevented and the body can either lose fat or gain lean mass in a healthy way.

Factors that affect energy in Calorie intake Energy digested and absorbed (90-99%)
Factors that affect energy out
Work Physical work (exercise and activity)	Heat Heat produced with physical work Heat produced via the thermic effect of food (TEF) Heat produced by resting metabolism Heat produced: adipose creation Heat produced: adipose thermoregulation	Storage Efficiency of work Efficiency of food metabolism Energy stored in adipose tissue

Why do people struggle to get negative or positive?

First and foremost, it’s uncomfortable.

But furthermore, an interesting phenomenon has developed over the past 25 years.

With our focus on specific nutrients, intense dietary counseling, repeated dieting and processed food consumption, body fat levels have also increased. While nutrition and health experts simply blame weight gain on calories, that doesn’t paint the whole picture.

Blaming weight gain on calories is like blaming wars on guns. The calories from food are not the sole cause of a skewed energy balance. It’s the entire lifestyle and environment.

While this may seem illogical, it demonstrates the importance of body awareness (hunger/satiety), avoidance of processed foods, regular physical activity and the persuasion of advertising.

Is calorie counting the solution? Probably not

Many people feel that if they just can add up calorie totals for the day, their energy imbalance problems will be solved.

While it can work for some and even make others feel proud of their spreadsheet skillz, by the time we add up calories for the day and factor in visual error, variations in soil quality, variations in growing methods, changes in packaging, and assimilation by the body – do we really know how many actual calories have been consumed? I sure don’t, and I’m a dietitian.

Our energy balance is regulated and monitored by a rich network of systems.

There’s a complex interplay between the hypothalamus, neural connections in the body and hormone receptors. Information is received about energy repletion/depletion, the diurnal clock, physical activity level, reproductive cycle, developmental state, and acute and chronic stressors.

Moreover, information about the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of sensory and internal food experiences are relayed. These signals can impact energy balance. Even the best spreadsheet skills will have trouble tracking that.

As a society, the more we focus on calories and dietary restraint, the more positive our energy balance seems to get.

So, what should we focus on?

How about considering ingredients rather than nutrition facts labels?

The nutrition facts label is pretty worthless until we know what we’re eating. 100 calories isn’t cool when it’s Chips Ahoy. So, if monitoring is your thing, then monitor food quality more that quantity.

Straight up overeating

Don’t kid yourself: it’s still possible to overeat “quality” food. However, this overeating takes place usually when we’re “sneaking” calories in by choosing high calorie density foods.

• For example, by using 2 tbsp of olive oil to prepare our meals 3x per day, we can “sneak in” over 90g of fat and 810 calories into our diets. Olive oil is good for us. But adding 810 calories per day probably isn’t.
• Further, if we eat 4 handfuls of mixed nuts per day, which may be an extra 300-500 calories, depending on the size of your hands. Again, raw nuts are awesome for us. However, eating too many isn’t.
• If we go with 4 whole eggs for breakfast, instead of 3 egg whites and 1 whole egg, that’s an extra 18g of fat and 162 calories.
• If we choose lean protein vs. extra lean, we may add an additional few hundred calories of fat to our menu each day without even knowing it.

As you can see from the above, in most cases, we wouldn’t really be able to tell the difference between our meals with and without the olive oil, with extra lean vs. lean, and so on.

In essence, we’re sneaking the extra calories in without being any more full, and/or without changing anything else about our day. And that’s when it’s possible to over-eat on nutritious foods.

So, although we discourage counting calories, grams, etc. we do suggest watching out for calorie sneaking.

How to be negative or positive

While necessary for fat loss, a negative energy balance can be uncomfortable. Being in a negative energy state can result in hunger, agitation, and even slight sleep problems.

On the flip side, while necessary for muscle gain, a positive energy balance can be uncomfortable as well. Both extremes cause the body to get out of, well, balance.

Accomplishing a negative energy balance can be done in different ways.

Increasing the amount of weekly physical activity you participate in is one of the best options.

How to create a negative energy balance

• Build muscle with weight training (about 5 hours of total exercise each week) and proper nutrition
• Create muscle damage with intense weight training
• Maximize post workout energy expenditure by using high intensity exercise
• Regular program change to force new stimuli and adaptations
• Boost non-exercise physical activity
• Increase thermic effect of feeding by increasing unprocessed food intake
• Eat at regular intervals throughout the day
• Eat lean protein at regular intervals throughout the day
• Eat vegetables and/or fruit at regular intervals
• Incorporate omega-3 fats
• Incorporate multiple exercise modes
• Stay involved with “life” outside of exercise and nutrition
• Sleep 7-9 hours each night
• Don’t engage in extreme diets for risk of long-term overcompensation
• Stay consistent with habits
• Ignore food advertising

How to create a positive energy balance

• Build muscle with weight training (at least 4 hours of intense exercise per week) and proper nutrition
• Create muscle damage with intense weight training
• Minimize other forms of exercise (other than high intensity and resistance training)
• Limit excessive non-exercise physical activity
• Try consuming more shakes and liquids with calories
• Build in energy dense foods that don’t cause rapid satiety (nut butters, nuts, trail mix, oils, etc.)
• Eat at regular intervals throughout the day
• Incorporate additional omega-3 fats
• Take advantage of peri-workout nutrition, with plenty of nutrients consumed before, during, and after exercise
• Sleep 7-9 hours per night
• Stay consistent with habits

Remember that a skewed energy balance is not something that needs to be achieved from now until the end of time. Once in “maintenance mode,” constant energy balance excursions are unnecessary.

Further resources

http://www.precisionnutrition.com/members/showthread.php?t=8265

A New View of Energy Balance

Extra credit

Micronutrients act as cofactors and/or coenzymes in the liberation of energy from food. A limited intake can disturb energy balance and can lead to numerous side effects.

Some factors that have been associated with attaining a negative energy balance include:

• Regular nut consumption
• Meal replacement supplements/super shakes
• Green tea
• Low energy density foods (veggies, fruits, lean proteins, whole grains, etc.)
• Dietary protein
• Avoidance of refined carbohydrates
• Adequate hydration
• Dietary fiber
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Regular exercise
• Adequate sleep
• Positive social support

References

Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 3^rd Edition. Groff JL, Gropper SS. 1999. Delmar Publishers, Inc.

Anatomy & Physiology, 4^th Edition. Thibodeau GA, Patton KT. 1999. Mosby, Inc.

Exercise Endocrinology, 2^nd Edition. Borer KT. 2003. Human Kinetics.

Illustrated Principles of Exercise Physiology, 1^st Edition. Axen K, Axen KV. 2001. Prentice Hall.

Food, Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 11^th Edition. Mahan LK, Escott-Stump S. 2004. Saunders.

Nutrition and Diagnosis-Related Care, 5^th Edition. Escott-Stump S. 2002. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

The Merck Manual, 17^th Edition. Beers MH, Berkow R. 1999. Merck Research Laboratories.

Forbes GB. Body fat content influences the body composition response to nutrition and exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000;904:359.

Prentice A, Jebb S. Energy intake/physical activity interactions in the homeostasis of body weight regulation. Nutr Rev 2004;62:S98.

Rampone AJ, Reynolds PJ. Obesity: thermodynamic principles in perspective. Life Sci 1988;43:93.

Berthoud HR. Multiple neural systems controlling food intake and body weight. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2002;26:393.

Jequier E. Leptin signaling, adiposity, and energy balance. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002;967:379.

Buchholz AC, Schoeller DA. Is a calorie a calorie? Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:899S.

Nutrition and the Strength Athlete. Volek, J. 2001. Chapter 2. Edited by Catherine G. Ratzin Jackson. CRC Press.

Essen-Gustavsson B & Tesch PA. Glycogen and triglycerides utilization in relation to muscle metabolic characteristics in men performing heavy resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990;61:5.

MacDougall JD, Ray S, McCartney N, Sale D, Lee P, Gardner S. Substrate utilization during weightlifting. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988;20:S66.

Tesch PA, Colliander EB, Kaiser P. Muscle Metabolism during intense, heavy resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1986;55:362.

Cori CF. The fate of sugar in the animal body. I. The rate of absorption of hexoses and pentoses from the intestinal tract. J Biol Chem 1925;66:691.

Nutrition for Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition. Berning J & Steen S. Chapter 2. 1998. Aspen Publication.

Pitkanen H, Nykanen T, Knuutinen J, Lahti K, Keinanen O, Alen M, Komi P, Mero A. Free Amino Acid pool and Muscle Protein Balance after Resistance Exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:784.

Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen synthesis before and after exercise. Sports Med 1977;11:6.

Chandler RM, Byrne HK, Patterson JG, Ivy JL. Dietary supplements affect the anabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:839.

Ganong WF (2001) Endocrine functions of the pancreas & regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. In: Review of Medical Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 322-343.

Guyton AC, Hall JE (2000) Insulin, glucagon, and diabetes mellitus. In: Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, pp. 884-898.

Jentjens R & Jeukendrup A. Determinants of Post-Exercise Glycogen Synthesis during short term recovery. Sports Med 2003;33:117.

Levenhagen DK, Gresham JD, Carlson MG, Maron DJ, Borel MJ, Flakoll PJ. Postexercise nutrient intake timing in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001;280:E982.

Borsheim E, Tipton KD, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002;283:E648.

Mattes RD, et al. Impact of peanuts and tree nuts on body weight and healthy weight loss in adults. J Nutr 2008;138:1741S-1745S.

Berthoud HR. Multiple neural systems controlling food intake and body weight. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2002;26:393-428.

Stice E, et al. Psychological and behavioral risk factors for obesity onset in adolescent girls: a prospective study. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2005;73:195-202.

Shunk JA & Birch LL. Girls at risk for overweight at age 5 are at risk for dietary restraint, disinhibited overeating, weight concerns, and greater weight gain from 5 to 9 years. J Am Diet Assoc 2004;104:1120-1126.

Tanofsky-Kraff M, et al. A prospective study of psychological predictors of body fat gain among children at high risk for adult obesity. Pediatrics 2006;117:1203-1209.

Boston – January 24th, 2010 “Strength Training for Rowing” – All Day Clinic for Coaches and Athletes

Coach Kaehler is pleased to announce  that he is hosting this highly informative clinic  Boston at the Weld Boathouse.  Please contact Coach Kaehler if you would like to have this clinic at your venue.  Only Eight (8) spots available per clinic!!

Strength Training for Rowing – One Day Clinic for Coaches and Athletes

Testimonials

This Clinic is approved by US ROWING for eight (8) hours of Continuing Education towards Level(s) 1,2 and 3-Certifications.

Weld Boathouse in Boston, MA – January 24th, 2010

This comprehensive one day seminar is designed for athletes and coaches at all levels, who are interested in improving their individual or team’s performance.  This event includes a comprehensive power point lecture on strength training, and how flexibility and strength imbalances will affect each individuals rowing performance.

• Power point lecture (morning): Will include anatomy and structural imbalances as related to rowing, and how imbalances affect rowing and lifting performance.
• Power point lecture (afternoon): Will include the bio-mechanics of strength training and rowing, and will discuss how the two can be directly correlated with proper implementation.
• Strength Training: Hands-on review of bio-mechanics and lifting technique in the gym with class participation, including key points and safe effective exercises instruction.
• Hands-on instruction:  How to identify individual athlete inflexibility, and explanations of why they will limit rowing performance.
• Hands-on instruction:  How to perform basic stretching techniques that improve rowing mobility and performance.
• Participation on the ergometer/weights:  Demonstration of specific exercises that directly tie in strength training to the rowing stroke.
• Discussion of how to set up your gym or training area.
• Each participant will receive a copy of the Power Point lecture(s)

Included in this one day clinic are several hands on teaching sessions which will assist in learning proper lifting techniques and related bio-mechanics, as well as demonstrations on how imbalances can be corrected.  Emphasis will also be placed on how correct strength training and flexibility exercises can improve power development of the rowing stroke.  We will also review the basics of sport nutrition as it relates to recovery from training, and summarize the concepts covered in the clinic.  This clinic will set a strong foundation for future strength training and remove myths often heard about its safety.  This class is ideal for those looking to improve overall performance and learn how to train far more effectively.

Class size is limited to (8) participants for the all day clinic to allow for effective hands on coaching instruction for each individual.  In addition spot are also available to attend the lecture(s) only.

**Coach Kaehler (bio) has been a physical therapist for 18 years, a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) for 13 years and a USAW Sports Coach for (4) four years. Please contact Coach Kaehler for more details.

Please refer to the schedule to see the tentative layout for the day.

When:           January 24st, 2010

Time:              8:00 to 4:30 pm

Location:      Weld Boathouse in Cambridge, MA 

SIGN-UP NOW For the ALL DAY CLINIC clinic as these (8) spots will fill quickly!!!  ONLY SIX (6) spots are available.

SIGN-UP NOW – LECTURE ONLY (Morning Session) – “Structural Imbalances Identification and Correction”

SIGN-UP NOW – LECTURE ONLY (Afternoon Session) – “Proper Mechanics of Strength Training”

January 23rd, 2010 – Boston Area – “Structural Evaluations” Available One Day Only

Coach Kaehler will be in Boston from January 21st thru January 24th to hold his “Strength Training for Rowing” clinic at Northeastern University on January 22nd, and at Harvard University on January 24th. He will also be available to perform his “Structural Evaluations” on interested participants on January 23rd. The individual structural evaluation and corrective body balancing exercise session takes about 90 minutes. For those interested please sign up below to reserve your spot.

January 23rd, 2010 (location will either be at a hotel in Cambridge or one of the boathouses mentioned above)

9:00am – 10:30 am – available

10:30 am – 12:00pm – available

12:30pm – 2:00pm – available

2:00pm – 3:30 pm – available

3:30pm – 5:00pm – available

After making your purchase, please contact Coach Kaehler to reserve your preferred time.

January 22, 2010 – Northeastern University – Staff Development – “Strength Training for Rowing”

Coach Kaehler will be providing his “Strength Training for Rowing” clinic at Northeastern University for the coaches, trainers, and strength and conditioning staff that work with the womens rowing team. This clinic is closed.

Effects of Strength Training on Endurance Performance

Column Editor- Bob Kaehler, MSPT, CSCS

By Robert Blaisdell, BS, CSCS

The notion of endurance athletes training for their sport while utilizing non-sport specific resistance training has long been in dispute for its supposed adverse physiological changes and the interference with peak performance in endurance sport endeavors. This school of thought governed the training principles of endurance sport athletes despite developments in periodization and knowledge of specific training applications for endurance sport for quite some time.

The highly trained marathon runner is hardly the ideal “poster-person” for the promotion of body-building in the traditional sense of lifting huge amounts of mass in a sweaty gym, nor is the highly trained body-builder the ideal “poster-person” for the next big regatta’s marketing campaign. Seasoned athletes in each of their respective sport areas know better and would scoff at either of the aforementioned sights. But what a few, and growing number of these seasoned athletes know is that some beneficial cross-over adaptations taking place when one implements training strategies that utilize some formerly “taboo” methods. Both strength and endurance training methods can be valuable to one’s health and fitness levels when implemented safely and scientifically, but a combination of the two can be quite advantageous for an athlete, especially the endurance sport athlete. Keep in mind that there are specific training protocols which should be followed for optimal results and such aspects will be discussed later in this article. It is the intent of this article to promote the use of strength training as a practical and advisable means to utilize in the training for endurance sport. With that being said, this paper will attempt to discuss and explain the benefits of strength training for endurance performance through describing the physiological adaptations to strength and endurance training programs, the effects of strength training on endurance performance in several endurance sports, and how to effectively implement a strength training protocol in an individual’s endurance sport training program.

Training specificity does play a key role in the individual physiological training adaptations of a strength training and endurance training program. The characteristic adaptations of a resistive strength training program defined by high loads and low rep ranges are an increase in muscle hypertrophy, which in turn translates to an increase in muscle cross-sectional area. This increase in cross-sectional area is representative of the internal physiology of increases in muscular protein content, fiber size, and possibly fiber number [1]. The increased muscle fiber size elicits an increase in muscle force production, which is characterized by increases in muscle strength, power- peak and short-term, as well as increased time to exhaustion at higher intensity sub-maximal levels. Resistive strength training adaptations elicit little to no change in activities of phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative enzymes [1]. Resistive strength training will, at best, maintain capillary density, which translates to the rate of O₂ diffusion/ delivery remaining the same as the level it was prior to the resistive strength training program. Resistive strength training produces increases in trained muscle of glycogen content. Finally, resistive strength training programs have shown to increase an individuals VO₂ max ~ 3% [1], but this increase is only representative of untrained individuals and not representative of normal results, which show no increase in VO₂ max. Most research also suggests that resistive strength training program adaptations are similar between genders [2].

The characteristic adaptations of an endurance training program defined by low loads and high repetition ranges are an altering of size and ratio of type IIb muscle fibers, and an inherent decrease in muscle cross-sectional area. The decrease of type IIb fibers is characterized by a shift to type IIa. Endurance training, unlike resistive strength training, shows a decrease in the activity of glycolytic enzymes. Endurance training programs also show an increase in intramuscular substrate stores and oxidative enzyme activity [1]. An increase in capillary and mitochondrial density is representative of endurance training and is a good description of the “aerobic” aspect of endurance training. With endurance training there is a marked decrease in myofiber contractile properties which translates to a decrease in force generation capacity of type I and IIa fibers [1], but this decreased force production, especially of the type IIa fibers could elicit the increase in fiber efficiency that endurance athletes are so fond of. The aforementioned decrease in muscle cross-sectional area also has its advantages. This decrease in cross-sectional area translates to a decreased distance that O₂ diffuses, therefore decreasing O₂ delivery time. The collective adaptations of endurance training programs are increase in VO₂ max, lactate threshold, and endurance capacity [1].

To summarize the physiological adaptations of resistive strength training and endurance training, one could conclude that both induce one common muscular adaptation; they both transform type IIb fibers into IIa fibers [1]. The resultant transformation has opposite changes in fiber size and contractile properties [1]. Each of these changes was brought about by a specifically designed training program, periodizationally designed to elicit the most results in ones training for each respective sport.

While there are numerous research studies outlining the positive effects of a resistive strength training program on endurance performance, this article will take a closer look at a few select studies and highlight their respective findings. The endurance performances that were examined in the respective research articles were running performance, cycling performance, rowing performance, and finally swimming performance.

The research presently available that evaluates running performance after a resistive strength training program protocol does so for untrained and moderately trained populations. The increases an individual would acquire from a resistive strength training program would translate to increased strength and therefore anaerobic power, which could help a running performance during increases in speed, hills, and sprint finishes. According to the reports and those evaluated by other reports, higher anaerobic power can be a key determinant when comparing cross-country runners with a similar VO₂ max. Studies that have utilized untrained as well as moderately trained runners, report increases in leg strength following a resistive strength training program on average 25% to 40% greater than the values recorded pre-study, and a 10% to 13% increase in short term treadmill performance, although the protocol for either testing procedure was not reported. Both of these improvements in performance came about with no reported increase in VO₂ max. According to Tanaka and Swenson, these increases in performance may be from increases in fiber size which allows individuals to exercise longer at each respective sub-maximal intensity by reducing force contribution required from each active myofiber and thus using less of them to sustain a similar work load prior to the resistive strength training program. A stronger type I fiber may allow resistance trained individuals to delay recruitment of less efficient type II fibers for running performance [1]. In summary of the research available for resistive strength training programs on running performance, it can be noted that resistive strength training programs added to an endurance running program may decrease the degree of activation per motor unit and muscle fiber, therefore decreasing the number of motor units and muscle fibers needed for running performance [1].

The research that applies a resistive strength training program to the sport of cycling is quite numerous and this paper will discuss a few different studies that utilize various training methods of resistive strength training. Similar to the demands of running, cycling performance is enhanced by the ability of utilizing anaerobic and short term power for attacks, climbing, and sprinting throughout competitive cycling races. The results of resistive strength training programs administered for the sole purpose of improved cycling performance have supported the hypothesis that these resistive strength programs do elicit favorable gains in cycling performance. The overall impact of resistive strength training on cycling performance shows that resistive strength training programs increase Wingate anaerobic power outputs from 6% to 17%, leg muscular strength from 3% to 35%, and short term performance by ~29% in the untrained individual [1]. The time to exhaustion increased 20% at a workload intensity of 80% VO₂ max in trained individuals, and 33% at a workload intensity of 75% in untrained individuals [1]. The latter corresponds to a 12% increase in blood lactate threshold level, a key determinant in endurance performance. These improvements in cycling performance are due in part to the same physiological adaptations found in the aforementioned running performance research which states that increases in performance may be from increases fiber size which allows individuals to exercise longer at each respective sub-maximal intensity by reducing force contribution required from each active myofiber and thus using less of them to sustain a similar work load prior to the resistive strength training program. A stronger type I fiber may allow resistance trained individuals to delay recruitment of less efficient type II fibers for running performance [1].

A study which examined the gains in sprint and endurance cycling performance through explosive resistive and high intensity training programs during a competitive cycling phase in highly trained cyclists concluded that the well trained cyclists in the study had significantly major gains in cycling performance through improved exercise efficiency and increased anaerobic threshold levels [3].  The conclusion of this study recommends that replacing a portion of the competitive training phase with high intensity-explosive resistive strength training protocols will elicit major gains in sprint and endurance performance. The reasoning behind this recommendation is that the neural activation adaptations possibly contributed to the increase in sprint performance, and that the explosive type of resistive strength training led to an increase in the firing frequency of motor units which then increased muscle peak force and rate of force development [3].

The common theme among the studies is that the resistive strength training programs were beneficial to improvements in cycling performance and are further evidenced by a similar study by Izquierdo et al., which examined the effects of strength training on sub-maximal and maximal endurance performance in middle-aged and older men. This study reported significant improvement in both areas in the first 8 weeks of the 16 program. There were no decreases in performance following the initial 8 weeks, but the subjects did reach a plateau in improvement. This initial improvement was reportedly linked to an increase in blood lactate threshold [6].

The research utilized for this article evaluates rowing performance after a resistive strength training program in trained and untrained female collegiate rowers. The study conducted by Ebben et al., specifically looked at the effects of high-load versus high-repetition resistive strength training programs on endurance performance of female rowers. The nature of successful rowing performance requires a high level of aerobic capacity as well as muscular strength [2]. A varsity and freshman women’s crew teams were both involved in the study and both groups were reported to have improved their rowing performances following the study. The difference in the modalities of the resistive strength training is where the variation lies for each respective group. The more highly trained varsity rowers showed that the high load resistive strength training program is what elicited improvements in rowing performance as compared to the less trained freshman rowers, who responded more favorably with the high-repetition resistive strength training program. The findings are consistent with a pre-existing hypothesis that pre-training status dictates the amount of potential adaptation [2]. The research concludes that “regardless of whether or not VO₂ max changed with training, peak VO₂ did increase with the concurrent training protocol” [2]. This improvement of peak VO₂ can be associated with the rowing performance.

The last endurance sport this paper will discuss is swimming. The results of recent studies examining the effectiveness of strength training programs on swim performance show contradictory results of those of the aforementioned running, cycling, and rowing studies. The swim studies conducted utilized both untrained and trained swimmers but despite increases in upper body muscular strength of ~30% through combined swim and resistive strength training programs, there were no related increases in swim performance by way of faster times or decreases in blood lactate threshold levels during those specific splits. This contradiction in endurance improvements is due to the highly technical stroke mechanics of swim performances and their related dynamic strength requirements [1]. What did invoke improvements in swim performance was a combination of endurance swim training and in-water, swim-movement specific resistance training programs. These in-water, swim-movement specific resistance protocols consisted of swimming flumes, biokinetic swimming bench training, and in-water resistance devices [1].

When applying a strength training program to elicit positive changes in endurance performance one must carefully perform a needs analysis, biomechanical analysis, as well as examine the periodization of the yearly training program. All of these variables will help to decide which is the proper resistive strength training program protocol to utilize. The nature of endurance sports, like most other sports, is to have an in-season and an off-season. The goal of each respective phase is very different, as training during these phases should be as well. During the off-season, the endurance competitor is engaging in fairly low intensity for long durations, whereas during the in-season, the competitor engages in races of varying importance and trains at higher intensities for shorter durations [5]. The resistive strength training program should follow suit, and consist of lower intensity, high volume training protocol during the off-season and consist of higher intensity, low volume training during the in-season phase of the periodized year [5]. Utilizing specific resistive strength training exercises with movement patterns to coincide with the movement patterns of your endurance sport can be beneficial to the overall improvement and effectiveness of a resistive strength training program. Using these movement specific exercises can also aide in reduction of muscle imbalances which could plague the high repetition endurance athlete.

It was the intent of this article to promote the use of strength training as a practical and advisable means to utilize in the training for endurance sport. This article discussed and explained the physiological adaptations of both resistive strength and endurance training programs, the effects and subsequent benefits that these physiological adaptations had in specific endurance sports and described how to effectively implement a strength training protocol in an individual’s endurance sport training program, which should be followed for optimal results. As this article has shown the evidence to support the argument that resistive strength training is a valuable and worthwhile training method for endurance sport performance, this type of concurrent training will not only produce increases in performance but also decreased risk of injury due to muscle imbalance and overuse syndromes.

References

1. Tanaka, H., Swenson, T. (1998). Impact of resistance training on endurance performance: a new form of cross-training? Sports Med, 25 (3): 191-200.

2. Ebben, W. P., Kindler, A.G., Chirdon, K. A., Jenkins, N. C., Polichnowski, A. J., Ng, A. V. (2004). The effect of high-load vs. high-repition training on endurance performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18 (3): 513-517.

3. Paton, C. D., Hopkins, W. G. (2005). Combining explosive and high-resistance training improves performance in competitive cyclists. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19 (4): 826-830.

4. Bastiaans, J. J., van Diemen, A.B.J.P., Veneberg, T., Jeukendrup, A.E. (2001). The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 86: 79-84.

5. Erickson, T. M. (2005). The benefits of strength training for endurance athletes. NSCA’s Performance Training Journal, 4 (2): 13- 17.

6. Izquierdo, M., Hakkinen, K., Ibanez, J., Anton, A., Garrues, M., Ruesta, M., Gorostiaga E. M. (2003). Effects of strength training on submaximal and maximal endurance performance capacity in middle-aged and older men. Journal of Strength and  Conditioning Research, 17 (1): 129-139.

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