Rowing News – October Article – A Balanced Approach

“When working your core, remember to pay attention to your posterior muscles”

By Bob Kaehler, MSPT, CSCS

If your training program includes core exercises, make sure you also incorporate posterior core work to keep your routine balanced. With core training focusing largely on the abdominal and anterior trunk musculature, the posterior muscles tend to get less attention. These include the thoracic and lumbar paraspinal muscles—muscles on either side of the spine—the glutes, and the hamstrings. Each of these groups play an important role in helping to control the spine when the upper and/or lower extremities resist against it, with or without movement and with or without external weight.
The posterior-trunk, hip, and lower-extremity musculature create an extension moment (a tendency to extend or arch the low back) around the lumbar spine when these muscles are contracting.   This counteracts the flexion moment (curling of the spine), which is created by the anterior muscle groups of the core. Posterior core exercises fall into four categories: fixed trunk with moving legs; fixed legs with moving trunk, where arms and legs are fixed; and with all extremities moving.
Fixed trunk with moving legs exercises include prone leg lifts, which can be done while lying prone (on the stomach) over an exercise ball, on a bench with your waist at the edge and feet on the floor, or on the floor. The arms are fixed either on the floor or on the edges of the bench and the legs are raised off the floor to the ideal height until the body is in at least a straight line (standing position) or the feet are slightly higher than the hips.  Fixed legs moving trunk exercises are done just as they sound: by fixing the legs and moving the trunk. Readers will recognize these as back extensions. Exercises include straight-leg dead lifts and back extensions. Back extensions are done on a chair, hyperextension machine, exercise ball, or on the floor. In each case, the feet are fixed to a solid object.
Because the hands are free, you can easily add resistance to this category of exercises. Exercises in which all four extremities are moving include the Superman exercise, where you lie on your stomach, on the floor or atop an exercise ball, and lift your arms and legs off the floor together. This category allows you to add resistance to all four extremities at once for increased resistance. The fourth and final category of exercises has all four extremities fixed on the floor. A posterior plank or bridge is a common exercise here. Start by lying in a hook position with your knees bent-up, feet flat on the floor, and your arms at your sides, palms down. Once you have set your starting position, raise your hips off the floor until your shoulders, hips, and knees are in a straight line. For an added challenge, do these exercises with your feet placed atop an exercise ball instead of the floor.
While there are many different core exercises, you should aim for as much variety in your program as possible. This means choosing exercises from as many categories as you can. The goal of posterior-core strengthening is to make the spine the stability point when you are moving the extremities, hips, and trunk around it. By improving strength and control around your spine, you will not only improve your rowing performance but also help reduce the risk of injury. When adding resistance to the hands or feet, make sure that you are able to keep the spine under control. Too much resistance can lead to poor technique and spine positioning.

Rowing News – September Article – Core Beliefs

To increase power and reduce the risk of injury, focus on your trunk strength.
By Bob Kaehler, MSPT, CSCS

Are you incorporating core- or trunk-strengthening exercises into your training program? And if so, what are you actually trying to accomplish with them? Your body’s core consists of the musculature around the trunk that controls anterior, posterior, and lateral forces placed through the spine when rowing, lifting, exercising, or performing other body movements. Making the trunk or core the point of stability for the legs and arms to work from is key to improving your rowing power and helps reduce the risk of low-back injury.
There are four categories of core exercises: fixed trunk with moving legs; fixed legs with moving trunk; fixed arms and legs; and all extremities moving. We can then break down each category according to how the trunk is positioned to the work or gravity (anterior, posterior, standing, lateral, etc) and how the work is applied to the trunk. Improving trunk strength is one way to increase rowing power, and using exercises from each of the above categories will help you develop balanced trunk strength. (Many training programs focus solely on improving anterior trunk strength.)
The most common anterior trunk strengthening exercises feature fixed legs and a moving trunk. These include: sit-ups and oblique twists with fixed feet; crunches performed on the floor; crunches performed with an exercise ball; and crunches performed with a core wheel (knees or feet fixed with trunk moving). You can also strengthen the anterior trunk by fixing the upper body (no movement either on the ground or by holding onto a pull-up bar or another solid object on the floor). These exercises include: knees to elbows (on the floor or from a pull-up bar); single or double leg lifts off the floor; stationary bike exercises; and using a power wheel attached to the feet.
Another way to help strengthen the anterior trunk is to fix all four extremities on the floor, either by holding a front plank or by doing a push-up. These types of movements tend to be isometric but are excellent at teaching spine control. Finally, you can also perform exercises where all four extremities are moving, such as scullers or v-ups, or by touching both hands and feet together when lying on your back. These are great for coordination and require good abdominal balance. Avoid doing only your favorite abdominal exercises and focus on a more balanced approach to your anterior trunk strengthening program—especially if you are not sure of your anterior trunk strength balance. Using a blend of exercises from each of the four categories is a good way to cover your bases. Because the abdominals are postural muscles, they are designed to tolerate a higher volume of repetitions without fatigue (3 x 25 reps or more) than your extremities can take. When working on your abdominal muscle groups, focus on improving your endurance by using higher reps rather than going for maximum strength. In addition, abdominal muscles recover from strength training faster the extremities so they can be trained daily with less concern of overtraining.
A comprehensive program to strengthen your trunk by using core exercises must also include movements that work on the posterior and lateral trunk as well. Finding a good balance between anterior, posterior, and lateral trunk strength is essential to reduce the risk of injury while at the same time improving your rowing power and strength.

RN August Article – Squats and Deadlifts are similar but different

By Bob Kaehler MSPT, CSCS

Squats and deadlifts are common lifting techniques used to help improve rowing strength and power.   While they look similar in appearance, recent research has shown that back squats and the dead lift recruit muscles around the hips, knees and trunk in different ways.   The squat tends to be a synergistic or simultaneous movement of the hips, knees and trunk, whereas the deadlift is a sequential or segmented movement.   Using all three of these lifts may be a more inclusive way to develop complete rowing power; however certain physical conditions may exclude use of one or all of these techniques.

The back squat is a commonly used strength training technique to help improve rowing power and it helps develop strength in the glutes, quads and hamstrings and to a lesser extent in the low back and abdominal muscles.   A back squat is done by placing the bar behind the neck at the C7 vertebral level securing the bar with the hands.   The weight is lowered to the desired depth (hole) and returned to the starting position.  Hip and knee angles change equally, both working at similar rates, throughout the entire upward movement of the squat, with little change in trunk angle (body) during the entire lift.  The squat is an excellent simultaneous exercise and it develops quad, glute and hamstring strength with little strain placed on the low back.   This technique is used by athletes returning from, or those with previous back conditions because of the reduced force placed on the low back, it does however it does tend to have increased knee joint pressure because of the vertical trunk position.  Using a more vertical trunk position does make it more difficult to get the thighs below 90 degrees (parallel to the floor) without significant knee pressure.

There are two basic strategies for deadlifts (lifting weight off the ground), the leg-lift method and the back-lift method.  The leg-lift deadlift is done in a synergistic way where by the hips and knees are used together through the entire lift, like in the back squat.  This technique requires greater knee flexion (bend) which allows the lifter to keep the trunk in a relatively straight (vertical) position when performing the lift.  This technique does place more stress on the knees however there is a reduction in the force placed through the low back.   The back-lift is method is broken up into three segments based on dominant joint action; knee extension, hip extension, and knee/hip extension.   The first part of the lift is done by driving the hips upward  without any trunk movement and is done by extending the knees, then the hips begin to extend which forces the trunk to come upright, and then both the hips and knees come together to complete the movement which is  an upright standing position.   This technique places greater force on the low back and less strain on the knees.   When doing a deadlift with heavier loads (<80% 1RM) the back method appears to be the most commonly used technique.   Both methods are used to lift weight off the floor and each distributes forces to the low back and knees in different proportions.

Squats and deadlifts are excellent strength training techniques and they can help improve your rowing strength and power.   Deciding which areas of the body you want to strengthen will help you choose the best lift technique.   If you want to strengthen the quads, glutes and hamstrings but want to place minimal stress on the low back then use the leg- lift deadlift and the back squat.  For those who want to improve the strength of the low back while still working the quads, glutes and hamstrings then the back-lift deadlift is a good choice.   If you have a pre-existing low back or knee dysfunction choosing the appropriate lift will help you reduce the risk of re-injuring that area.  Make sure to consult with a medical professional if you are strength training especially if you have a current or pre-existing musculoskeletal injury, and ensure you are using the proper lifting technique by receiving instruction from a professional lifting coach.

Rowing News – July Issue: Stretch Yourself – When selecting a stretching routine, consider the work ahead of you.

Everyone knows that stretching is an essential part of training, but for many people, their knowledge of the subject ends there. Is it best to stretch before or after training? How long should a stretch be held? These are simple but fundamental questions that every athlete should be able to answer. Here’s a hint: It all depends on the type of stretching you’re doing and what you want to accomplish.
Athletes have two unassisted stretching methods to improve flexibility: static and ballistic. Static stretching is the most common method for improving muscle flexibility; ballistic stretching helps improve mobility. Selecting a technique depends on whether you are just warming up or are looking for more permanent changes in your flexibility. You also need to consider the intensity of the activity taking place immediately following your stretching routine.
To perform a static stretch, which is most commonly used as part of a warm-up routine, isolate a muscle group or groups and apply a passive hold with multiple repetitions. Typical holds last between three to five seconds and are repeated five to 10 times.  Longer-duration holds of 30 to 60 seconds are better performed away from training and are best suited to those looking to make permanent changes in joint flexibility. Long-duration stretching is done daily for five minutes or longer per extremity and performed on both sides of the body. Recent studies have found that long-duration stretching significantly reduces maximum strength. Because of this, it makes more sense to do short-duration stretches prior to hard training or racing to ensure that your peak muscle performance is not compromised. Save the longer stretches for less intense training sessions or another time altogether.
Ballistic stretching is another self-stretching method that athletes use prior to training and competition. It’s practiced by moving in and out of the hold position in 1:1-second cycles for one minute. The research has shown that while the ballistic method is not as effective as the static technique in increasing flexibility, it does not negatively affect maximum strength and is better before maximum-effort bouts of exercise. One potential drawback, however, is that it is more likely to produce muscle soreness than static stretching.
Stretching is used as a warm-up activity to help improve athletic performance, reduce the risk of injury, and help reduce post-exercise muscle soreness. It can also be used to create long-term adaptations in joint flexibility. Regardless of your stretching method of choice, though, be sure to increase your core temperature by performing a cardiovascular exercise such as running, biking, or erging five to 10 minutes beforehand. Daily sessions of long-duration stretching (30 to 60 seconds) have been shown to induce more permanent changes in flexibility and are done away from maximal-effort bouts, while short-duration (three to five seconds of up to 10 reps) or ballistic stretches are better suited as a warm up before aggressive training.
When you are looking to create permanent changes in joint range of motion, make sure you are stretching daily—several times per day if possible—and are willing to make it a part of your normal routine for months or even years.  Short-duration stretches are great for warming your body up, but keep in mind that the changes to your joint range of motion are temporary.

Rowing News June Issue -Will strength training lead to increased muscle mass? Only if you want it to.

By Bob Kaehler MSPT, CSCS

Is it possible to improve speed and power through strength training without increasing body mass? Many endurance athletes and coaches think not, and tend to shy away from such programs  such programs fearing the extra weight will slow them down.  For gravity-dependent endurance sports like running and cycling a significant increase in body mass can lead to a decrease in training and racing performance. Lightweight rowers face similar effects on their performance if lean muscle mass increases.   Otherwise, however, most of these fears are unfounded.

So where do they come from?  Here in the United States, the fear that lifting weights will bulk you up, a condition known as hypertrophy, has been influenced by the bodybuilding community, whose training methods are designed to maximize weight gain  The bodybuilding community has adopted specific training methods that are designed to maximize weight gain.  These should be avoided if your goals do not include increasing muscle mass.   Good endurance strength training programs tend to focus on increasing sports specific strength and power with minimal changes to body mass.

Bodybuilders want to increase muscle mass and shape without any consideration of functional strength or increasing sports specific power.  Their training programs tend to focus on body-part isolation and employ higher repetitions (12-20 reps) with moderate to heavy weights.   The movements are slow, especially during the negative work phase when the weight is lowered.   Apart from brief warm-ups, there are no aerobic components to these programs.    Body builders also consume supplements designed to rapidly increase muscle mass.  These methods allow bodybuilders to quickly increase the size and shape of their trained muscles, but they may negatively affect your performance by developing muscles you won’t be using on the water.

Weight training programs for endurance sports should focus on increasing sport specific strength and power with little or no changes to overall body mass.    The majority of an athlete’s weekly training time is devoted to aerobic training.  This significantly reduces the chances that strength training will translate into bulk.  In addition, explosive strength training movements like Olympic lifts–  power cleans, snatches and the clean and jerk– as well as plyometric movements like box jumps have not been shown to bulk athlete up.  For both of these methods, the body must recruit large muscle groups to complete the desired movement.

Research has shown that changes in strength and power from Olympic lifts tend to come from improvements in the neural efficiency of the trained muscle groups and that no muscle hypertrophy occurs.  For rowing, the power clean is the most explosive and functional lift and is often referred to as  the vertical rowing stroke.   The power clean and other similar multi-joint exercises are excellent at building an explosive rowing stroke.   For experienced rowers who have not been properly trained or are not interested in using  Olympic lifts in their program, squat presses (thrusters) , front squats, push presses, and box jumps (up only) offer  alternatives  that keep  movements functional  and explosive.  Be  sure to keep the weights light enough so you can perform these movements quickly.  And always make sure to get professional instruction if you have not received training in proper lifting technique.

If you are adding a strength training program or looking to refine your current program and want to avoid bulking up, consider the following:  make sure the majority of your training is aerobic in nature; limit the  number  of different exercises you use in a session to five or so; choose multi-joint exercises such as squats, power cleans, pull-ups, dead lifts over single joint exercises such as bicep curls or knee extensions; try to mimic the rowing motion when possible by setting your body in a similar position; and avoid slow negative work when using heavier weights especially with moderate volume (12-20 reps).  Functional, explosive multi-joint strength training exercises can help increase your strength and power without increasing your body weight.

Rowing News May Article – Rest for the Weary

By Bob Kaehler MSPT, CSCS

Are you scheduling enough de-training, or rest time, into your current workout?   When designing a balanced workout program you must be sure to consider when and how much rest to integrate into your program both during and at the end of each training cycle.   Long periods of training without proper rest can lead to injury, illness, or poor results.  Too much down time, however, could lead to a loss of fitness or even sub-optimal training progress.

Many athletes are wired to train more, not less.   And unless you’re hurt or sick, taking days off is not is almost never an option.  Injury and illness may be one of Nature’s ways of making you rest, but the lost training time comes with a price.  You can mitigate this with carefully chosen rest periods and scheduled days off during your normal weekly routine.  Not only will they help prevent declines in performance, but the down time will also help reduce your risk of injury and illness.

Training cycles generally run from three to 12 weeks or longer and should be followed with a rest period.  These are in addition to any days you take off in your weekly schedule.  I recommend a rest period after training for a minimum of three weeks, and generally no longer than five weeks.  For each week you train during a cycle, you should schedule in one rest day.   Therefore, after training for three weeks, you would schedule in a three-day rest period.   After a five week training cycle, you would schedule in a rest period lasting anywhere from three to five days.

There are two kinds of rest: active and complete.  Active rest days are very light training days, lasting no longer than approximately one-third of the time of your longest weekly workout (e.g.  If your longest workout is 90 minutes then your active rest session should be no longer than 30 minutes).   Complete rest days are totally off- meaning no weights, Pilates, running, or yoga, etc.  A three-week training cycle would be followed by a three-day rest period with at least one of those days including active rest.  A five-week training period would be followed by up to a five-day rest period.    For those who find it too stressful to take a day off completely from activity, a 30 minute walk at just above your resting heart rate is acceptable.   During the rest periods that follow a training cycle, you should take at least but no more than two complete rest days off in a row, and then mix in active and complete rest as needed.  If you are training less than five days per week there is less of a concern about getting enough rest and so you may not feel the need for the scheduled rest periods.  One advantage of using these frequent scheduled rest periods is that it allows for an effective recovery even after an intense training cycle.  It also gives coaches and elite athletes the option of training seven days per week with multiple daily sessions if needed.

You also need to factor in the number of years of training experience you have when determining the appropriate amount of rest time to factor into your workout cycle.  Recreational athletes with less training experience should regularly schedule active and/or complete rest days into their weekly schedules.  Elite athletes are generally better able to handle training at high workloads for short periods of time (three to five weeks) without weekly rest, while more experienced club level rowers should consider scheduling in at least one day of rest.  Novice rowers who have less than two years of training under their belts need up to three days of rest each week.

Regardless of how experienced you are, rest is an integral part of any training program. Allowing your body to recover properly from training will lead to greater long term results on the water.

Rowing News April Article – Check Yourself

There are two ways to monitor how hard you’re working, and neither tells the whole story.

By Bob Kaehler

Looking for an effective way to measure proper intensity levels while training?  Coaches use two different methods to keep tabs on their athletes: heart rate monitors and a combination of speed, wattage, and split averages.  Both methods have certain inherent advantages and have been used to great effect by world-class coaches and athletes.  Regardless of the one you use, it is important that you consider additional external and internal factors which could affect actual intensity levels.

Heart-rate monitors are a popular method for tracking intensity levels during a training session.  But knowing your current maximum heart rate is essential if you want to train effectively.  Karvonen’s formula (220- age) is often used to establish maximum heart rate, but can be 15 beats or more per minute above or below your actual maximum heart rate.   A better way to establish  maximum heart rate is through a step test guided by a physiologist’s plan, or by rowing a 2,000-meter test.   After accurately measuring maximum heart rate, you can then set correct heart-rate training zones.  Many coaches and physiologists break training intensity into a minimum of three levels or zones: easy work (65-80 percent of max heart rate), threshold work (88-92 percent of max), and interval work (98-100 percent of max).  Before you begin training with heart-rate monitors and zone targets, however, you’ll need to consider a slew of other factors.

External environmental conditions such as air temperature, humidity, wind, and even the amount of clothes you wear can affect your heart rate.  Internal conditions such as how well hydrated you are before and during your workout can also play a role.  This is why it is so important to remain properly hydrated when training.  Cardiac drift, the natural tendency for one’s heart rate to creep upward as training progresses, must also be considered during training sessions lasting longer than 30 minutes.  The likelihood of cardiac drift occurring in shorter workouts can increase if the external and/or internal conditions are not ideal before or during your training session.  If this happens, you may need to reduce your training intensity to keep the heart rate within the desired zone.

Some athletes and coaches, meanwhile, prefer measuring speed, wattage, and average splits to determine workout intensity.  This method works particularly well when training indoors on rowing machines, where conditions remain consistent.  Power and speed measurements can be taken accurately, free of external factors such as wind speed, water current, and air and water temperatures.   When training outdoors, these external conditions can influence speed and therefore must be taken into proper consideration when assessing the intensity of a particular workout.  Periodic testing, such as a 2,000-meter-or 6000-meter test, is often used to set training speeds and average splits.  Using these benchmarking tools will allow you to find your appropriate pace and can be an effective way to monitor specific intensities for a given training session.

Heart-rate monitors may be a better choice for self-coached athletes versus the speed, wattage, and split average method, which is best conducted under the guidance of a coach who can continuously regulate intensity levels based on the changing conditions and external factors.  Regardless of which method you choose to determine intensity levels for training, pay attention to the conditions within your control by staying properly hydrated, using fans when indoors, and wearing the appropriate workout gear.

Rowing News – Fitness Column February 2010

Written by Coach Kaehler:

Are you stuck on the ergometer now that winter has set in?  For those of you who must train indoors this winter, now is a great time to work on proper body posture while cranking out the meters on the erg.  Rowing with proper body posture, or biomechanics, through the winter training season can help to reinforce good habits now, and better prepare you for a solid on- the-water season once the ice melts.  One big advantage of using an ergometer is that it allows you to get instant feedback on your body posture and technique during the rowing stroke.    An easy way to quickly assess your posture and rowing technique is to place mirrors in front and alongside the rowing machine, or by using a video camera to record your rowing stroke.  Either method allows you to get quick feedback and make the necessary adjustments to improve your rowing posture and technique.    Although ideal rowing posture varies among coaches, most would agree on keeping your  spine in an extended, upright position (Figure 1, yellow line) rather than in a C- shape (Figure 2, yellow line), at  the catch, during the drive, and on the recovery of the rowing stroke.  Your spine connects the power from your legs through the arms onto the handle, much like a transmission in an automobile. The spine, when remaining stable, acts as a harness to transmit all of the force from the legs during the first half of the drive.  During the second half of the drive, the spine begins to generate its own force along with the arms to help complete  a powerful stroke.  A solid rowing posture improves your ability to maintain effective body suspension on the drive, leading to a smoother and more rhythmic recovery.  Improving your rowing posture requires specific attention to several areas, including proper head position, hamstring flexibility and solid trunk strength.

Head and neck position are important because their position helps dictate what the rest of the spine will do.  At the catch, it is ideal for your head to be looking forward or slightly up (Figure 2, blue line) putting your neck in an extended position, helping to promote a straight spine as described above.  When your head is looking down towards the foot stretchers or your legs your neck tends to be in a flexed position (Figure 2, head position) which may lead to a C shapes spine. (Figure 2, yellow line)

In addition to proper head and neck alignment, your hamstring flexibility is an important factor in helping promote effective rowing posture.  Lack of mobility in the hamstrings often leads to more rounding in the low back on the recovery and at the catch.  Your aim is to get your body over on the recovery with your low and mid spine in the straightest position possible.   Hamstring mobility can be improved right on the erg by pivoting the body over  at the recovery with the low and mid spine kept in a firm  extended position (Figure 3, yellow line), until tension is felt in the back of the knees (Figure 3, red marker).

While flexibility and head posture are both important so is good trunk strength which is necessary to be able to maintain this solid spine posture.  One easy method for developing better trunk strength while maintaining  a straight back position is to do one or both  of the following drills “legs only” and “legs and arms only ”.   Keeping the trunk stable requires good strength especially when these two drills are done with moderate power.   Again, using mirrors here makes it easy for you to assess your trunk position quickly to ensure you are doing these strength drills correctly.

As the ice begins to melt and you are getting back in the boat, your new rowing posture will not only improve your power and performance, it will make all those meters on the erg even more valuable when you finally get your blade in the water.  Looking forward to that spring thaw!!

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Effects of Strength Training on Endurance Performance

Column Editor- Bob Kaehler, MSPT, CSCS

By Robert Blaisdell, BS, CSCS

The notion of endurance athletes training for their sport while utilizing non-sport specific resistance training has long been in dispute for its supposed adverse physiological changes and the interference with peak performance in endurance sport endeavors. This school of thought governed the training principles of endurance sport athletes despite developments in periodization and knowledge of specific training applications for endurance sport for quite some time.

The highly trained marathon runner is hardly the ideal “poster-person” for the promotion of body-building in the traditional sense of lifting huge amounts of mass in a sweaty gym, nor is the highly trained body-builder the ideal “poster-person” for the next big regatta’s marketing campaign. Seasoned athletes in each of their respective sport areas know better and would scoff at either of the aforementioned sights. But what a few, and growing number of these seasoned athletes know is that some beneficial cross-over adaptations taking place when one implements training strategies that utilize some formerly “taboo” methods. Both strength and endurance training methods can be valuable to one’s health and fitness levels when implemented safely and scientifically, but a combination of the two can be quite advantageous for an athlete, especially the endurance sport athlete. Keep in mind that there are specific training protocols which should be followed for optimal results and such aspects will be discussed later in this article. It is the intent of this article to promote the use of strength training as a practical and advisable means to utilize in the training for endurance sport. With that being said, this paper will attempt to discuss and explain the benefits of strength training for endurance performance through describing the physiological adaptations to strength and endurance training programs, the effects of strength training on endurance performance in several endurance sports, and how to effectively implement a strength training protocol in an individual’s endurance sport training program.

Training specificity does play a key role in the individual physiological training adaptations of a strength training and endurance training program. The characteristic adaptations of a resistive strength training program defined by high loads and low rep ranges are an increase in muscle hypertrophy, which in turn translates to an increase in muscle cross-sectional area. This increase in cross-sectional area is representative of the internal physiology of increases in muscular protein content, fiber size, and possibly fiber number [1]. The increased muscle fiber size elicits an increase in muscle force production, which is characterized by increases in muscle strength, power- peak and short-term, as well as increased time to exhaustion at higher intensity sub-maximal levels. Resistive strength training adaptations elicit little to no change in activities of phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative enzymes [1]. Resistive strength training will, at best, maintain capillary density, which translates to the rate of O₂ diffusion/ delivery remaining the same as the level it was prior to the resistive strength training program. Resistive strength training produces increases in trained muscle of glycogen content. Finally, resistive strength training programs have shown to increase an individuals VO₂ max ~ 3% [1], but this increase is only representative of untrained individuals and not representative of normal results, which show no increase in VO₂ max. Most research also suggests that resistive strength training program adaptations are similar between genders [2].

The characteristic adaptations of an endurance training program defined by low loads and high repetition ranges are an altering of size and ratio of type IIb muscle fibers, and an inherent decrease in muscle cross-sectional area. The decrease of type IIb fibers is characterized by a shift to type IIa. Endurance training, unlike resistive strength training, shows a decrease in the activity of glycolytic enzymes. Endurance training programs also show an increase in intramuscular substrate stores and oxidative enzyme activity [1]. An increase in capillary and mitochondrial density is representative of endurance training and is a good description of the “aerobic” aspect of endurance training. With endurance training there is a marked decrease in myofiber contractile properties which translates to a decrease in force generation capacity of type I and IIa fibers [1], but this decreased force production, especially of the type IIa fibers could elicit the increase in fiber efficiency that endurance athletes are so fond of. The aforementioned decrease in muscle cross-sectional area also has its advantages. This decrease in cross-sectional area translates to a decreased distance that O₂ diffuses, therefore decreasing O₂ delivery time. The collective adaptations of endurance training programs are increase in VO₂ max, lactate threshold, and endurance capacity [1].

To summarize the physiological adaptations of resistive strength training and endurance training, one could conclude that both induce one common muscular adaptation; they both transform type IIb fibers into IIa fibers [1]. The resultant transformation has opposite changes in fiber size and contractile properties [1]. Each of these changes was brought about by a specifically designed training program, periodizationally designed to elicit the most results in ones training for each respective sport.

While there are numerous research studies outlining the positive effects of a resistive strength training program on endurance performance, this article will take a closer look at a few select studies and highlight their respective findings. The endurance performances that were examined in the respective research articles were running performance, cycling performance, rowing performance, and finally swimming performance.

The research presently available that evaluates running performance after a resistive strength training program protocol does so for untrained and moderately trained populations. The increases an individual would acquire from a resistive strength training program would translate to increased strength and therefore anaerobic power, which could help a running performance during increases in speed, hills, and sprint finishes. According to the reports and those evaluated by other reports, higher anaerobic power can be a key determinant when comparing cross-country runners with a similar VO₂ max. Studies that have utilized untrained as well as moderately trained runners, report increases in leg strength following a resistive strength training program on average 25% to 40% greater than the values recorded pre-study, and a 10% to 13% increase in short term treadmill performance, although the protocol for either testing procedure was not reported. Both of these improvements in performance came about with no reported increase in VO₂ max. According to Tanaka and Swenson, these increases in performance may be from increases in fiber size which allows individuals to exercise longer at each respective sub-maximal intensity by reducing force contribution required from each active myofiber and thus using less of them to sustain a similar work load prior to the resistive strength training program. A stronger type I fiber may allow resistance trained individuals to delay recruitment of less efficient type II fibers for running performance [1]. In summary of the research available for resistive strength training programs on running performance, it can be noted that resistive strength training programs added to an endurance running program may decrease the degree of activation per motor unit and muscle fiber, therefore decreasing the number of motor units and muscle fibers needed for running performance [1].

The research that applies a resistive strength training program to the sport of cycling is quite numerous and this paper will discuss a few different studies that utilize various training methods of resistive strength training. Similar to the demands of running, cycling performance is enhanced by the ability of utilizing anaerobic and short term power for attacks, climbing, and sprinting throughout competitive cycling races. The results of resistive strength training programs administered for the sole purpose of improved cycling performance have supported the hypothesis that these resistive strength programs do elicit favorable gains in cycling performance. The overall impact of resistive strength training on cycling performance shows that resistive strength training programs increase Wingate anaerobic power outputs from 6% to 17%, leg muscular strength from 3% to 35%, and short term performance by ~29% in the untrained individual [1]. The time to exhaustion increased 20% at a workload intensity of 80% VO₂ max in trained individuals, and 33% at a workload intensity of 75% in untrained individuals [1]. The latter corresponds to a 12% increase in blood lactate threshold level, a key determinant in endurance performance. These improvements in cycling performance are due in part to the same physiological adaptations found in the aforementioned running performance research which states that increases in performance may be from increases fiber size which allows individuals to exercise longer at each respective sub-maximal intensity by reducing force contribution required from each active myofiber and thus using less of them to sustain a similar work load prior to the resistive strength training program. A stronger type I fiber may allow resistance trained individuals to delay recruitment of less efficient type II fibers for running performance [1].

A study which examined the gains in sprint and endurance cycling performance through explosive resistive and high intensity training programs during a competitive cycling phase in highly trained cyclists concluded that the well trained cyclists in the study had significantly major gains in cycling performance through improved exercise efficiency and increased anaerobic threshold levels [3].  The conclusion of this study recommends that replacing a portion of the competitive training phase with high intensity-explosive resistive strength training protocols will elicit major gains in sprint and endurance performance. The reasoning behind this recommendation is that the neural activation adaptations possibly contributed to the increase in sprint performance, and that the explosive type of resistive strength training led to an increase in the firing frequency of motor units which then increased muscle peak force and rate of force development [3].

The common theme among the studies is that the resistive strength training programs were beneficial to improvements in cycling performance and are further evidenced by a similar study by Izquierdo et al., which examined the effects of strength training on sub-maximal and maximal endurance performance in middle-aged and older men. This study reported significant improvement in both areas in the first 8 weeks of the 16 program. There were no decreases in performance following the initial 8 weeks, but the subjects did reach a plateau in improvement. This initial improvement was reportedly linked to an increase in blood lactate threshold [6].

The research utilized for this article evaluates rowing performance after a resistive strength training program in trained and untrained female collegiate rowers. The study conducted by Ebben et al., specifically looked at the effects of high-load versus high-repetition resistive strength training programs on endurance performance of female rowers. The nature of successful rowing performance requires a high level of aerobic capacity as well as muscular strength [2]. A varsity and freshman women’s crew teams were both involved in the study and both groups were reported to have improved their rowing performances following the study. The difference in the modalities of the resistive strength training is where the variation lies for each respective group. The more highly trained varsity rowers showed that the high load resistive strength training program is what elicited improvements in rowing performance as compared to the less trained freshman rowers, who responded more favorably with the high-repetition resistive strength training program. The findings are consistent with a pre-existing hypothesis that pre-training status dictates the amount of potential adaptation [2]. The research concludes that “regardless of whether or not VO₂ max changed with training, peak VO₂ did increase with the concurrent training protocol” [2]. This improvement of peak VO₂ can be associated with the rowing performance.

The last endurance sport this paper will discuss is swimming. The results of recent studies examining the effectiveness of strength training programs on swim performance show contradictory results of those of the aforementioned running, cycling, and rowing studies. The swim studies conducted utilized both untrained and trained swimmers but despite increases in upper body muscular strength of ~30% through combined swim and resistive strength training programs, there were no related increases in swim performance by way of faster times or decreases in blood lactate threshold levels during those specific splits. This contradiction in endurance improvements is due to the highly technical stroke mechanics of swim performances and their related dynamic strength requirements [1]. What did invoke improvements in swim performance was a combination of endurance swim training and in-water, swim-movement specific resistance training programs. These in-water, swim-movement specific resistance protocols consisted of swimming flumes, biokinetic swimming bench training, and in-water resistance devices [1].

When applying a strength training program to elicit positive changes in endurance performance one must carefully perform a needs analysis, biomechanical analysis, as well as examine the periodization of the yearly training program. All of these variables will help to decide which is the proper resistive strength training program protocol to utilize. The nature of endurance sports, like most other sports, is to have an in-season and an off-season. The goal of each respective phase is very different, as training during these phases should be as well. During the off-season, the endurance competitor is engaging in fairly low intensity for long durations, whereas during the in-season, the competitor engages in races of varying importance and trains at higher intensities for shorter durations [5]. The resistive strength training program should follow suit, and consist of lower intensity, high volume training protocol during the off-season and consist of higher intensity, low volume training during the in-season phase of the periodized year [5]. Utilizing specific resistive strength training exercises with movement patterns to coincide with the movement patterns of your endurance sport can be beneficial to the overall improvement and effectiveness of a resistive strength training program. Using these movement specific exercises can also aide in reduction of muscle imbalances which could plague the high repetition endurance athlete.

It was the intent of this article to promote the use of strength training as a practical and advisable means to utilize in the training for endurance sport. This article discussed and explained the physiological adaptations of both resistive strength and endurance training programs, the effects and subsequent benefits that these physiological adaptations had in specific endurance sports and described how to effectively implement a strength training protocol in an individual’s endurance sport training program, which should be followed for optimal results. As this article has shown the evidence to support the argument that resistive strength training is a valuable and worthwhile training method for endurance sport performance, this type of concurrent training will not only produce increases in performance but also decreased risk of injury due to muscle imbalance and overuse syndromes.

References

1. Tanaka, H., Swenson, T. (1998). Impact of resistance training on endurance performance: a new form of cross-training? Sports Med, 25 (3): 191-200.

2. Ebben, W. P., Kindler, A.G., Chirdon, K. A., Jenkins, N. C., Polichnowski, A. J., Ng, A. V. (2004). The effect of high-load vs. high-repition training on endurance performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18 (3): 513-517.

3. Paton, C. D., Hopkins, W. G. (2005). Combining explosive and high-resistance training improves performance in competitive cyclists. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19 (4): 826-830.

4. Bastiaans, J. J., van Diemen, A.B.J.P., Veneberg, T., Jeukendrup, A.E. (2001). The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 86: 79-84.

5. Erickson, T. M. (2005). The benefits of strength training for endurance athletes. NSCA’s Performance Training Journal, 4 (2): 13- 17.

6. Izquierdo, M., Hakkinen, K., Ibanez, J., Anton, A., Garrues, M., Ruesta, M., Gorostiaga E. M. (2003). Effects of strength training on submaximal and maximal endurance performance capacity in middle-aged and older men. Journal of Strength and  Conditioning Research, 17 (1): 129-139.

Lower-Mid Back Strength Conditioning for Rowing Performance

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